Table 6 Common risk factors in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis underlying rheumatic diseases
From: Vascular involvement in rheumatic diseases: 'vascular rheumatology'
1. Traditional | Age |
Smoking | |
Dyslipidemia | |
Hypertension | |
Diabetes mellitus | |
Immobilization | |
Sedentary lifestyle | |
2. Inflammatory | Acute-phase proteins (C-reactive protein, fibrinogen) |
Lipoprotein (a) | |
Folate and vitamin B12 deficiency | |
Decreased paraoxonase activity | |
CD4+/CD28- T cells | |
Autoantibodies (anti-CCP, rheumatoid factor, anti-oxLDL, anti-phospholipid antibody, anti-hsp) | |
Proatherogenic cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-6) | |
Chemokines | |
Angiogenic growth factors | |
Matrix-degrading metalloproteinases | |
Increased cell adhesion molecule expression | |
Hyperhomocysteinemia | |
Defective apoptosis | |
3. Iatrogenic | Methotrexate – bimodal? |
Corticosteroids – bimodal? |