Table 4 Clinically relevant sources of mesenchymal stem cells for cartilage engineering

Bone marrow

Clinical and pre-clinical [7],[38],[45],[47],[48],[51],[53],[59],[60],[65],[66],[68],[69],[71]-[73],[76]-[78],[80]-[85],[88]-[91],[97]

Most rigorous investigation and strongest supporting evidence

Propensity to form osseous tissue (could be beneficial for osseous regeneration in osteochondral lesions)

Ease of collection by needle

Long-term safety reported

Peripheral blood

Clinical and pre-clinical [29],[61],[98]

Ease of collection by needle

Paucity of literature comparing this source to others

Synovial tissue

Pre-clinical [50],[52]-[54],[56],[62],[64],[67],[70]

Greatest chondrogenic capacity noted based on in vitro study

Clinical assessment is lacking

Periosteum

Pre-clinical [7],[56]

Equivalent chondrogenic capacity to bone marrow

Propensity to form osseous tissue

Clinical assessment is lacking

Adipose tissue

Pre-clinical [46],[49],[56]

Abundance of tissue

Reduced chondrogenic capacity

Widespread anatomic availability

Clinical assessment is lacking