Table 2 Potential novel radiotracers for detecting inflammation

Macrophage

TSPO

¹¹C-(R)-PK11195 (first generation)

Clinical

Multiple sclerosis [26], atherosclerosis [27], large vessel vasculitis [28], rheumatoid arthritis [29]

Preclinical

Rat model of acute neuroinflammation [30]

¹¹C-vinpocetine

Clinical

Multiple sclerosis [26]

¹¹C-DPA-713

Preclinical

Rat model of acute neuroinflammation [30]

Mice model of tuberculosis inflammation [31]

¹⁸F-DPA-714

Preclinical

Rat model of acute neuroinflammation [30]

Rat model of abdominal aneurysm [32]

¹¹C-DAC

Preclinical

Rat model of autoimmune encephalomyelitis [33]

¹⁸F-FEDAA1106

Clinical

Multiple sclerosis [34]

¹⁸F-FEDAC

Preclinical

Rat model of acute lung injury [35]

¹⁸F-PBR06

Clinical

Quantification of TSPO in normal human brains [36]

¹¹C-SSR180575

Preclinical

Rat model of neuroinflammation [37]

¹⁸F-PBR111

Preclinical

Rat model of temporal lobe epilepsy [38]

¹⁸F-GE-180

Preclinical

Rat model of stroke [39]

¹¹C PBR28

Clinical

Osteoarthritis [40]

Surface receptor

Somatostatin receptor

⁶⁸Ga-DOTATATE

Clinical

Atherosclerosis [41]

⁶⁴Cu-DOTATATE

Clinical

Atherosclerosis [42, 43]

⁶⁸Ga-DOTATOC

Clinical

Atherosclerosis [43]

⁶⁸Ga-DOTANOC

Clinical

Cardiac sarcoidosis [44]

Macrophage mannose receptor

^99mTc-tilmanocept

Clinical

HIV related cardiovascular disease [45]

¹⁸F-FB-anti-MMR Ab

Preclinical

Mouse model of tumor [46]

⁹⁹mTc-anti MMR nanobody

Preclinical

Mouse model of rheumatoid arthritis [47]

¹¹¹In-Tilmanocept

Preclinical

Mouse model of atherosclerosis [48]

CXCR4

⁶⁸Ga-Pentixafor

Preclinical

Rabbit model of atherosclerosis [49]

Folate receptors

^99mTc-EC20

Clinical

Rheumatoid arthritis [50]

Osteoarthritis [51]

DTPA-folate

Preclinical

Rat model of osteoarthritis [52]

Biologic pathways

Choline

¹⁸F-fluorocholine

Clinical

Atherosclerosis [53]

System XC

¹⁸F-FSPG

Preclinical

Mice model of multiple sclerosis [54]

Methionine

¹¹C-Methionine

Clinical

Myocardial infarction [55]

Macrophage enzymes

iNOS:

¹⁸F-NOS

Clinical

Acute lung inflammation [56]

Cathepsins:

⁶⁸Ga-BMV101

Preclinical

Mouse model of lung fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis [57]

Other macrophage specific tracers in preclinical studies

⁶⁴Cu-Man-LIPs

Preclinical

Mouse model of lung cancer [58]

⁶⁴Cu -Cinnamoyl-F-(D)L-F-(D)L-F (cFLFLF)

Mouse model of diabetes [59]

Rat model of osteoarthritis [60]

⁶⁴Cu-D-Ala1-peptied T-amide (DAPTA)

Mouse model of vascular injury [61]

^99mTc-NbV4m119 (CRIg-targeting nanobodies)

Mouse model of rheumatoid arthritis [62]

^99mTc-anti-Sn mAb (SER-4) (CD169 targeting)

Mouse model of allograft rejection [63]

Anti-Vsig4 Nbs (nanobodies targeting Vsig4)

Mouse model of hepatitis [64]

^99mTc-labelled anti-CD11b Ab

Mouse model of atherosclerosis [65]

Fibroblast

FAP inhibitor

⁶⁸Ga-FAPI

Clinical

Cancer [66], IgG4 related disease [67, 68], dilated cardiomyopathy [68]

⁶⁸Ga-DOTA-FAPI-04

Clinical

Cancer [69]

Osteoarthritis [70]

Angiogenesis

VEGF/VEGFR pathway

⁸⁹Zr-Df-bevacizumab

Clinical

Cancer [71,72,73,74,75]

⁸⁹Zr-Df-ranibizumab

Preclinical

Mouse model of cancer [76]

⁶⁴Cu-NOTA-RamAb

Preclinical

Mouse model of cancer [77]

α_vβ₃-integrin

¹⁸F-FPRGD₂

Preclinical

Cancer [78]

Clinical

Osteoarthritis [79]

⁶⁸Ga-PRDG2

Clinical

Osteoarthritis [80]